پرداختن به آسیب مغزی، ایسکمی مغزی، نقص شناختی، اضطراب و افسردگی
1- Introduction
2- Traumatic Brain Injury and Spinal Cord Injury
3- Cerebral Ischemia
4- Cognition Deficit
5- Depression and Anxiety
6- Parkinson’s Disease (PD)
7- General Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Effects of UA
8- Conclusions
References
Introduction
Ursolic acid (UA) is a common name for the plant triterpenoid compound, 3β-hydroxy-12-ursen-28-ic acid. The general biosynthetic routes of terpenoids are depicted in Figure 1 and start from the basic metabolic precursor, acetyl coenzyme A. Since mevalonic acid is an intermediate for terpenoid synthesis, including cholesterols and steroids in animals, this biosynthesis route is also called the mevalonate pathway. The basic building blocks of terpenoids are the five carbon isoprene units that exist in nature in highly reactive isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP or isopentenyl diphosphate) and its isomer, dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP, dimethylallyl diphosphate). The sequential addition of two, three, and four isoprene units leads to the basic skeletons of the monoterpenoid, sesquiterpenoid, and diterpenoid precursors, respectively, as geranyl, farnesyl, and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphates. All triterpenes are products of two farnesyl pyrophosphate units joined together in head-to-head fashion and trace their acyclic precursor as squalene (Figure 1). One of the nature’s wonder in structural diversity of plant secondary metabolites is reflected through the identification of well over 20,000 triterpenes from just a single squalene precursor. In the first instance, glycosylation to give the diverse saponins and related complex structures is the common route of structural diversity. Beyond oxidations to give the hydroxyl and common carboxylic acid derivatives, cyclisation patterns of terpenoids are the major source of structural diversity. For the triterpenes, the pentacyclic skeletons are among the most common and include the oleanane and ursane groups, among others (e.g., lupanes, gammaceranes, and hopanes). The difference between oleanane and ursane is based on the migration of one methyl group (C-30) in the latter compound from C-20 to C-19 position.